Good nutrition may reduce the incidence of breast cancer and the risk of breast cancer progression or recurrence. There are many studies in progress to help further understand how diet and cancer are related. We do know, however, that improved nutrition reduces risk of chronic diseases, such as diabetes, obesity, hypertension and heart disease, and also enhances overall quality of life. It is estimated that one third of cancer deaths in the U.S. can be attributed to diet in adulthood [1].
Here are comprehensive guidelines from Natalie Ledesma, MS, RD, CSO and Ida and Joseph Friend Cancer Resource Center, UCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center and the University of California, San Francisco.
Guidelines for a Healthy Diet
o Plenty of fruits and vegetables
o High fiber – whole grains and beans/legumes
• Low fat diet with emphasis on healthy fats
• Limit processed and refined grains/flours/sugars
• Drink plenty of fluids
• Be physically active to help achieve and maintain a healthy weight
Plant based diet
A lifelong commitment to a plant based diet may lower a woman’s risk of developing breast cancer
and may also reduce the risk of recurrent breast cancer. A plant based diet consists primarily of fruits,
vegetables, whole grains, beans/legumes, and other plant protein sources.
* All words noted with an asterisk ( * ) are defined in the glossary
Fill your plate with approximately
50% vegetables, 25% protein,
and 25% whole grain.
FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
Contain vitamins, minerals, fiber, and various cancer-fighting phytonutrients* (for example: carotenoids, lycopene, indoles, isoflavones, flavonols).
• Vibrant, intense COLOR is one indicator of phytonutrient* content.
• There is extensive and consistent evidence that diets high in fruits and vegetables are associated
with decreased risks of many cancers, and while results for breast cancer risk are not yet conclusive,
they are promising [2-12].
• In a study of about 3000 postmenopausal women, a protective effect for vegetables was observed [2].
o Women who consumed 25 or more servings of vegetables weekly had a 37% lower risk of
breast cancer compared with women who consumed fewer than 9 vegetable servings weekly.
• An epidemiological study reported a significant protective effect of vegetables against breast cancer
when case-control* and cohort* studies were considered together [4].
• A meta-analysis* – looking at the data from 17 studies [13] revealed that high vs. low vegetable
consumption was associated with a 25% reduction in breast cancer risk, but these findings were not
confirmed by collected data from 8 studies [14].
• A recent case-control* study reported women who consumed more than 3.8 servings of fruits and
vegetables daily had a lower risk of breast cancer when compared with women who consumed
fewer than 2.3 daily servings [15].
• Japanese women following a prudent dietary pattern (high in fruits and vegetables, low in fat) had a
27% decreased risk of breast cancer [5].
• A Korean case-control study* reported that a high intake of certain fruits and vegetables resulted in
a significantly lower risk of breast cancer in premenopausal (tomatoes) and postmenopausal women
(grapes and green peppers) [6].
• While no effect was observed for vegetables, increasing total fruit intake significantly lowered the risk
of breast cancer when comparing those in the highest to lowest tertile [16].
o This effect was greater for those with estrogen-receptor positive (ER+) tumors.
• Eating a salad vegetable dietary pattern (high consumption of raw vegetables and olive oil) exerted a
significant protective effect against HER-2-positive cancers [10].
• A study assessing plasma or blood carotenoids as a marker for fruit and vegetable intake reported
that individuals in the top 1/4 had a 43% lower risk of breast cancer recurrence when compared to
those in the lowest 1/4 [17].
• However, no association was observed between fruit and vegetable consumption and breast cancer
recurrence when women consumed five servings daily vs. eight servings daily [18].
• Breast cancer survivors significantly reduced mortality by following a diet low in fat, high in
vegetables, high in fiber, and high in fruit [19].
• The combination of consuming five or more daily servings of vegetables and fruits, and accumulating
540+ metabolic equivalent tasks-min/wk (equivalent to walking 30 minutes 6 d/wk) decreased
mortality by nearly 50% [11].
o The effect was stronger in women who had hormone receptor-positive cancers.
• Vegetable intake has been inversely associated with serum insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) levels [20].
BETA-CAROTENE
• Beta-carotene is one of the 600 carotenoids that can be partially converted into vitamin A in the body.
• Carotenoids have a protective role for certain sites of cancer, including breast cancer [7, 21-24].
• Carotenoid intake was significantly associated with reduced mortality in breast cancer survivors [19].
• In various studies, serum beta-carotene levels were lower among breast cancer patients compared
to women without cancer [21,25-29].
o One of these studies reported the risk of breast cancer to be 221% greater for women in the
lowest quartile of serum beta-carotene compared to women in the highest quartile [29].
• A case-control* study reported that increased plasma levels of beta-carotene, retinol, and total
antioxidant* status were associated with about a 50% reduced risk of breast cancer [28].
• In vitro research indicates that carotenoids may inhibit the production of breast cancer cells [30-31].
o Beta-carotene may inhibit ER+ and estrogen-receptor negative (ER-) breast tumor development
[22].
• Beta-carotene may hinder the development of breast cancer cells by inducing apoptosis*, or
programmed cell death [32].
• Research indicates that dietary sources of beta-carotene are likely much more protective than
supplemental sources against the risk of cancer [33-35].
o Women who consumed higher amounts of dietary beta-carotene, lycopene, and betacryptoxanthin
were associated with a lower risk of breast cancer among Chinese women [23].
o Dietary alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, and lycopene were inversely associated with risk of
ER+PR+ breast cancer [24].
o Dietary beta-carotene intake was inversely associated with IGF-I levels in a large case-control
study [20].
Cruciferous Vegetables
• Some evidence suggests that the cruciferous vegetables, in particular, are associated with a
reduced risk of breast cancer [36-40].
• A Swedish study of postmenopausal women reported one to two daily servings of cruciferous
vegetables to reduce the risk of breast cancer, possibly by as much as 20-40% [37].
• Women who ate more turnips and Chinese Cabbage, in particular, significantly reduced the risk of
postmenopausal breast cancer [40].
• Consumption of cruciferous vegetables, particularly broccoli, was inversely, though not statistically
significant, associated with breast cancer risk in women [36].
• The U.S. component of the Polish Women’s Health Study found that women who consumed raw- or
short-cooked cabbage and sauerkraut 3 or more times weekly had a significantly reduced risk of
breast cancer [39].
o Cabbage that was cooked for a long time had no effect on breast cancer risk.
o Researchers suggested that glucosinolates, compounds in cabbage, may affect both the
initiation phase of carcinogenesis*, cell mutation*, and inhibit apoptosis*.
• Cruciferous vegetables appear to shift estrogen metabolism in a favorable manner; increasing
2-hydroxyestrone:16-a-hydroxyestrone [41-42]. Fowke and colleagues [42] concluded that
consuming more cruciferous vegetables across the population may very well have an impact on the
incidence of breast cancer.
• Several studies suggest that compounds found in these foods, isothiocyanates (sulforaphane), have
inhibitory effects on breast cancer cells in both cell studies and animal studies [38, 43, 44].
o One mechanism appears to be through potent inhibition of phase I and induction of phase II
detoxifying enzymes, such as glutathione-s-peroxidase [36,40,43].
o Furthermore, these compounds exhibited reduced cell proliferation and inhibited
cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression in breast cancer cells [45].
o Inhibited cell growth and induced apoptosis has also been observed [46].
• Indole-3-carbinol (I3C) is a compound found in cruciferous vegetables that has anticancer
properties and anti-proliferative effects on breast cancer cells [47].
o I3C may inhibit the growth of blood vessels that the tumor needs to grow (anti-angiogenesis)
[48].
• I3C and diindolylmethane (DIM) induce apoptosis*, or cell death, in breast cancer cells [41,49] for
both ER+ and ER- tumor cells [50].
• Furthermore, I3C and tamoxifen have been shown to act separately and/or cooperatively to inhibit
the growth of ER+ breast cancer cells [51].
• Dietary I3C may have effects that bolster immune function [52].
• Calcium-D-glucarate has been shown to inhibit beta-glucuronidase, an enzyme involved in phase
II liver detoxification. Elevated beta-glucuronidase activity is associated with an increased risk for
various cancers, particularly hormone-dependent cancers such as breast cancer [53].
Nutrient Dietary Sources Recommendation
Beta-carotene
Carrots, sweet potatoes, winter squash, cantaloupe, and mango.
Include these fruits and vegetables daily.
Cruciferous vegetables
Arugula, broccoli, Brussels sprouts,
cabbage, cauliflower, collard greens,
horseradish, kale, kohlrabi, mustard
greens, radishes, rutabaga, turnips
and turnip greens, and watercress
Include these vegetables daily.
Organic Produce
• Organic fruits and vegetables have fewer pesticides, lower levels of total pesticides, and less overall
pesticide toxicity than fruits and vegetables grown with chemicals. Although more research is
needed, recent evidence indicates a significant increase in antioxidants* in organic and sustainably
grown foods versus conventionally grown foods [54-58].
o Organic vegetables contained a greater concentration of phytonutrients* (phenolic acids) when
compared to conventionally grown vegetables [57,58].
• Consuming organic foods appears to increase salicylic acid, which may contribute to a lower risk of
cancer [57].
• Pesticides such as organochlorine compounds (OCC), known as environmental pollutants, have
been implicated in the etiology of estrogen-related disorders due to their potential estrogenic and
anti-estrogenic properties [59].
• Results of some studies [59-61], but not all [62] suggest that environmental exposure to
organochlorine pesticide residues or PCBs may contribute to multifactorial pathogenesis of breast
cancer.
o In a study of women living on Long Island, New York, breast cancer risk was associated with
lifetime residential pesticide use [63].
o Organochlorine pesticide residues, including DDTs and HCHs, may increase women’s risk of
breast cancer, particularly in premenopausal women in China [60].
o Exposure to beta-HCH, an organochlorine pesticide residue, both accelerated the appearance
and incidence of breast cancer tumors when compared to control mice [61].
• The level of exposure may be integral in determining the effects of these OCC.
o One study found that when breast adipose tissue reached levels higher than 2600 ppb, women
with postmenopausal ERalpha-positive breast cancer exhibited high proliferation [64].
• Choosing organic produce will help you reduce your levels of pesticide exposure and will most likely
increase your phytonutrient* consumption.
o Although washing and peeling your non-organic fruits or vegetables may help to reduce
pesticide residues, it will not eliminate them.
• Listed below are produce with the most and least pesticide contamination, both in terms of number
of pesticides used and the level of pesticide concentration on an average sampling. Thus, for the
fruits and vegetables shown on the most contaminated list, it is wise to buy organic. Alternatively, if
organic choices are not available, you may want to consider substituting with produce that tends to
contain the least amount of pesticides.
Produce most contaminated by pesticides: Produce least contaminated by pesticides:
Peaches Onions
Apples Avocado
Bell peppers Sweet corn
Celery Pineapples
Nectarines Mango
Strawberries Sweet peas
Cherries Asparagus
Lettuce Kiwi
Grapes–imported Bananas
Pears Cabbage
Spinach Broccoli
Potatoes Eggplant
**Adapted from Environmental Working Group – A Shopper’s Guide to Pesticides in Produce
•It is most important, however, to eat fruits and vegetables – organic or conventional. If the
availability or cost of organic produce is a barrier, you may wish to avoid those fruits and vegetables
that have the highest pesticide residue content.
Pomegranate (Punica granatum; Punicaceae)
• Various parts of the pomegranate fruit (for example: seed oil, juice, fermented juice and peel extract)
have expressed the suppressive effects on human breast cancer cells in laboratory research [65].
• Pomegranate seed oil and fermented juice block the cancer cells’ oxygen supply, slow cell growth,
and promote cell death [66].
• Fermented pomegranate juice polyphenols* appear to have twice the anti-proliferative effect as
fresh pomegranate juice polyphenols* [67].
• Furthermore, one study suggests that pomegranate seed oil may have the greatest preventive
activity (87% reduction in lesions) compared to fermented pomegranate juice (42% reduction) [68].
FIBER – A PLANT-BASED DIET IS NATURALLY HIGH IN FIBER
• A diet rich in natural fiber obtained from fruits, vegetables, legumes (for example: lentils, split peas,
black beans, pinto beans), and whole-grains may reduce cancer risk and/or reduce risk of cancer
progression.
• Fiber binds to toxic compounds and carcinogens, which are then later eliminated from the body [69].
• Various mechanisms have been proposed for the protective effects of dietary fiber against cancer.
These include:
o Increased fecal bulk and decreased intestinal transit time, which allow less opportunity for fecal
mutagens to interact with the intestinal epithelium [70].
o Binding to bile acids, which are thought to promote cell proliferation [71].
o Fermentation in the gut, producing short-chain fatty acids (SCFA). SCFA improve the gut
environment and may provide immune protection beyond the gut [70,71].
o Additionally, whole grains are rich in antioxidants*, including trace minerals and phenolic
compounds, which have been linked to disease prevention [71].
• Furthermore, a high fiber diet works to reduce hormone levels that may be involved in the
progression of breast cancer [70,72-75].
o A high-fiber, low-fat diet intervention found that fiber reduced serum estradiol* (estrogen breaks
down into estradiol* in the body) concentration in women diagnosed with breast cancer, the
majority of whom did not exhibit weight loss. Thus, increased fiber intake was independently
related to the reduction in serum estradiol* concentration [74].
o This decrease in estrogen levels in the blood thereby may potentially reduce the risk of
hormone-related cancers, such as breast cancer.
o Reduced levels of serum estrone* and estradiol* were observed in premenopausal women with
a greater intake of dietary fiber [73].
o Similarly, a high intake of dietary fiber was significantly associated with low serum levels of
estradiol in postmenopausal breast cancer survivors [75].
o Dietary fiber intake increases the amount of estrogen excreted in the stool [76].
• A high fiber diet is also associated with less obesity [72].
• Total dietary fiber intake, particularly from cereals and fruit, was found to significantly reduce the
risk of breast cancer in pre-menopausal, but not post-menopausal women [77].
• A recent cohort* study reported that high fiber intakes were associated with a 42% lower risk of
postmenopausal breast cancer, when comparing women in the highest quintile of fiber intake
compared to the lowest quintile [78].
• An earlier prospective cohort* study, however, reported no protective effect of fiber against breast
cancer when comparing women who consumed fewer than 26 grams dietary fiber compared to
those who consumed even less [79]. This finding is not surprising given that the total grams of fiber
consumption was less than 30 grams.
o Similarly, another study that reported no significant findings compared women consuming less
than 25 grams fiber daily [80].
• Overall, case-control* studies have reported the greater the fiber intake, the lower the incidence of
breast cancer [8,81-84]. Data from prospective studies is mixed, reporting protective effects [78,85]
or no effect observed [79,80].
• Women who ate beans and lentils at least twice a week had a 24% lower risk of developing breast
cancer than women who ate them less than once a month [86].
High-Fiber Sources
FRUITS:
Food Serving Size Fiber Grams/ Serving
Apple 1 medium 3.7
Banana 1 medium 2.8
Blackberries 1/2 cup 1.9
Blueberries 1 cup 1.3
Cantaloupe 1/2 cup 6.0
Figs (dried) 1/4 cup 6.0
Grapefruit 1 medium 3.4
Grapes 1 cup 1.6
Guava 1 medium 4.9
Kiwi 1 medium 2.6
Orange 1 medium 3.1
Pear 1 medium 4.0
Persimmon 1 medium 6.0
Prunes 1/4 cup 3.1
GRAINS & OTHER PRODUCTS:
Food Serving Size Fiber Grams/ Serving
Amaranth 1/4 cup dry 7.4
Barley 1/2 cup cooked 3.0
Beans, black 1/2 cup cooked 8.3
Beans, red kidney 1/2 cup cooked 8.2
Beans, garbanzo 1/2 cup cooked 5.0
Bran cereals 3/4 cup Check labels (5.0-22.0)
Brown rice 1/2 cup cooked 1.4
Bulgur 1/2 cup cooked 4.0
Cream of wheat 1/2 cup cooked 0.5
Oatmeal 1/2 cup cooked 2.0
Peanuts 1/4 cup 2.9
Quinoa 1/4 cup dry 2.5
White rice 1/2 cup cooked 0.3
VEGETABLES:
Food Serving Size Fiber Grams/ Serving
Artichokes 1 medium 6.9
Beets 1/2 cup cooked 1.7
Broccoli 1/2 cup cooked 2.3
Brussel sprouts 1/2 cup cooked 2.0
Carrots 1/2 cup cooked 2.6
Kale 1/2 cup cooked 1.3
Lima beans 1/2 cup cooked 4.5
Peas, green 1/2 cup cooked 4.4
Spinach 1/2 cup cooked 2.2
Squash, winter-type 1/2 cup cooked 3.4
Sweet potatoes (yams) 1/2 cup cooked 2.7
SUGARS AND THE ROLE OF INSULIN*
• High sugar foods are usually highly processed and refined, low in nutrient value, and also low in
dietary fiber. In addition, these foods appear to increase serum insulin* and serum IGF-I levels [87],
which appear to stimulate cancer cell growth.
o Overexpression, or high amounts, of IGF increases mammary tumors in mice [88].
o IGF’s may work by stimulating cell cycle progression & prevent cells from premature death [89-92].
o IGF-I may promote tumor growth via upregulation of ovarian steroid secretion [92,93].
o Research indicates a synergistic effect between IGF-I and estrogen [94] as well as IGF-I and
insulin* resistance [95] in breast cancer.
• A prospective cohort* study observed a significant 310% increased risk of breast cancer in
premenopausal women who had the highest quartile of IGF-I compared to women with the lowest
quartile [88].
o A weaker association was found with fasting insulin* levels where premenopausal women in the
two highest quartiles had a 70% greater risk for breast cancer.
o In premenopausal women, women in the highest quartile of serum glucose had a 280%
increased risk of breast cancer compared with women in the lowest quartile.
o In postmenopausal women, the associations of glucose, insulin*, and IGF-I were associated
with breast cancer risk in heavier subjects (BMI>26 1).
o Overall, these findings indicate that chronic change of glucose/ sugar metabolism is related to
breast cancer development.
‘
• Other studies support a stronger link between IGF-I and breast cancer in premenopausal women
[91,96].
• Additionally, a case-control* study in China found that IGF-I significantly increased the risk of breast
cancer [95].
• Nonetheless, a recent meta-analysis* review of 18 studies reported no overall statistically significant
association between circulating IGF-I levels and risk of breast cancer although the levels were
greater in breast cancer patients than controls [90].
o However, IGF-I levels did appear to increase breast cancer risk in premenopausal women by
almost 40%.
• Similarly, a large prospective trial reported IGF-I significantly increased risk of breast cancer
in premenopausal women under the age of 50; no significant relationship was noted for
postmenopausal women [97].
• While not all studies [98] agree, a cohort* study reported that higher insulin* levels significantly
increased risk of breast cancer for both pre- and post-menopausal women [99].
• Recent studies indicate that high insulin* levels, increased concentration of IGF-I, and greater
abdominal fat are associated with increased risk for breast cancer [100].
• It has been suggested that decreasing IGF-I levels may be one factor that contributes to
tamoxifen’s anti-tumor activity in breast cancer therapy [101].
•Research is inconsistent regarding the association of IGF-I and disease-free survival or overall
survival [91].
• One study noted a direct association, though not statistically significant, between non-fasting serum
insulin* levels and 10-year mortality in postmenopausal breast cancer women [102].
• Among other factors, a diet low in fiber may favor the development of insulin* resistance and
hyperinsulinemia [89].
1BMI refers to body mass index, which is calculated by body weight (kg)/height2(m2).
• Hyperinsulinemia may contribute to the development of breast cancer in overweight or obese
women [103].
• Additionally, obesity and fasting hyperinsulinemia have been associated with a poorer prognosis in
women with established breast cancer [104].
• A recent case-control* study reported that carbohydrate intake significantly increased risk of breast
cancer; sucrose (table sugar) imparted the greatest risk [105]. This risk was lessened considerably
with a higher fiber intake.
• Furthermore, an Italian case-control* study found that women who consumed the highest tertile
of desserts and sugars had a 19% increased risk of breast cancer compared with women in the
lowest tertile [106].
• The consumption of sweet foods with a high glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load (GL) have been
implicated as a risk factor for breast cancer due to their effects on insulin and IGF-I [107-110].
o Women who consumed the greatest intake of desserts (including biscuits, brioches, cakes,
puffs and ice-cream) and sugars (including sugar, honey, jam, marmalade and chocolate) had a
19% increased risk of breast cancer compared with women who consumed the least desserts
and sugars [107].
• Adding credence to the idea that blood sugar levels may affect disease progression, women who
consumed a high GI and GL diet had a 57% and 253% increased risk of breast cancer, respectively
[108].
o This effect was most pronounced in premenopausal women and those women at a healthy
body weight.
• GI and GL were both associated with an increased risk of breast cancer among postmenopausal
overweight women; this effect was most pronounced for women with ER- breast cancer [109].
• This evidence was further supported by a meta-analysis that reported GI to modestly increase the
risk of breast cancer [110].
INSULIN HIGH TIDE. The observed link between obesity and cancer may be explained by the growthpromoting
activities of insulin and IGF-1. One theory posits that excess weight sets off a biochemical
cascade that increases insulin and, in turn, IGF-1 levels. Both hormones may activate IGF-1 receptors
on cells, which can spur cell growth and inhibit cell death pathways that usually protect against tumor
development.
E. Roell/Source: Nature Reviews Cancer, 2004
Sugars & Insulin* – Bottom Line
• To help control your insulin* level:
o Eat a high-fiber diet with limited refined/processed foods
o Follow a low fat diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids
o Exercise
o Maintain a healthy body weight
LOW FAT DIET
Several studies have investigated the relationship of fat and the risk of breast cancer, but the results
remain inconsistent. However, two recent trials showed some promise in the area. The Women’s
Intervention Nutrition Study (WINS) found that a reduced fat intake improves relapse-free survival
by 24% in postmenopausal women with breast cancer compared with women following a standard
diet [111]. The risk of recurrence for women with ER- breast cancer decreased by 42%. Later, the
European Prospective Investigation into Nutrition and Cancer (EPIC) Study reported that eating a
higher fat diet significantly increased the risk of breast cancer; women who had a 35% and 39% fat
diet were at a greater risk than those eating a 31% fat diet [112]. While neither of these diets would
be considered low fat, a significant effect was still observed.
The potential elevated cancer risk may be, in part, due to the fact that a high fat diet stimulates
increased estrogen levels, which is associated with breast cancer growth. A study of adolescent
females found that modest reductions in fat intake during puberty resulted in significantly lower concentrations
of sex hormones (estradiol*, estrone*, progesterone) [113]. Further research is needed to
determine if in fact these lower levels lead to a reduced risk of breast cancer.
Additionally, a low fat, high carbohydrate diet may result in a significant reduction in breast density,
particularly in women going through menopause. Aim for close to 20% of your total calories from
fat, with less than 8% of total calories from saturated fat. Research indicates that the type of fat
may be of paramount importance.
Saturated Fats
• Several studies indicate a positive association between saturated fat intake from meat and
dairy products (animal sources) and cancer [114-117]. The breast cancer research, however, is
inconclusive.
• Total saturated fatty acid intake was significantly associated with breast cancer risk in cohort*
studies in postmenopausal women, but not premenopausal women [118].
• Based on a seven-day diary for evaluating saturated fat intake, a high intake of saturated fat was
reported to increase the risk of breast cancer [116].
• A meta-analysis* observed a 19% increased risk of breast cancer with greater intake of saturated
fats [119].
• Other studies, however, have not found a significant association between saturated fats and breast
cancer [120-122].
Trans-Fatty Acids
• Preliminary research indicates that these fatty acids may be associated with an increased risk of
cancer [123-126].
• Minimal research exists on the relationship between trans-fatty acids and risk of breast cancer, thus,
more research is needed for conclusive evidence. However, some evidence points to a positive
association between these fats and breast cancer risk [125,127].
• These fats may disrupt hormonal systems that regulate healing, lead to the destruction of defective
membranes, and encourage the development of cancer.
• One study reported a 40% increased risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women who had
higher tissue levels of trans-fatty acids [128].
• Women who consumed greater amounts of trans-fatty acids significantly increased their risk of
breast cancer [126].
o Women in the highest quintile of trans-fatty acid consumption had a 75% increased risk
compared with women in the lowest quintile.
Omega-9 Fatty Acids (Monounsaturated Fats)
• Most research at this time indicates a neutral relationship [120,126] or a slightly protective effect
[122,129-131] between these fats and risk of breast cancer.
• Several case-control* studies reported that olive oil consumption, rich in omega-9 fats, resulted in a
13-34% reduction in breast cancer risk [132-135].
o One study found that women who consumed ≥8.8 g/day of olive oil had a 73% lower risk of
breast cancer [131].
• Oleic acid, an omega-9 fatty acid found in olive oil, has been observed to synergistically enhance
the efficacy of trastuzumab (Herceptin) [136,137].
• A meta-analysis*, however, that included three cohort* studies reported total monounsaturated fatty
acids and oleic acid, a type of omega-9 fatty acid, to significantly increase breast cancer risk [118].
Essential Fatty Acids (EFA)
Essential fatty acids are necessary for the formation of healthy cell membranes, the proper
development and functioning of the brain and nervous system, and for the production of hormonelike
substances called eicosanoids* (thromboxanes, leukotrienes, prostaglandins). Among other body
functions, these chemicals regulate immune and inflammatory responses.
Eicosanoids* formed from the omega-6 fatty acids have the potential to increase blood pressure,
inflammation, platelet aggregation, allergic reactions and cell proliferation. Those formed from the
omega-3 fatty acids have opposing affects. Current research suggests that the levels of essential
fatty acids and the balance between them may play a critical role in the prevention and treatment of
cancer.
Omega-3 Fatty Acids
• Research is growing supporting a protective relationship between omega-3 fatty acids [alpha
linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentanoic acid (EPA), and docosahexanoic acid (DHA)] against the risk of
breast cancer [118,120,135-141].
• Studies show that omega-3 fatty acids inhibit breast cancer tumor growth and metastasis.
Additionally, these fats are immune enhancing.
• Mechanisms proposed for their protective effects include:
o Suppression of eicosanoid synthesis from arachidonic acid (omega-6 fatty acid), which
impedes immune function [139,142].
o Inhibit cell growth and differentiation via effects on gene expression and signal transduction
pathways [139,142].
o Alter estrogen metabolism, which reduces estrogen-stimulated cell growth [139,142].
o Effects on insulin* sensitivity and membrane fluidity [142].
• A prospective study reported that women who consumed 44 g or more of dietary marine sources of
omega-3 fatty acids reduced their risk of breast cancer by 26% when compared with women who
consumed 25 g or less [120].
• Women with the greatest EPA, DHA, and total omega-3 fatty acids in their red blood cell
membranes from fish had a 73%, 94%, and 89% lower risk of breast cancer, respectively [140].
• An inverse relationship was found between omega-3 fatty acids in breast tissue and the risk of
breast cancer [137].
o When comparing women in the highest tertile of ALA and DHA to the lowest tertile, cancer risk
was reduced by 61% and 69%, respectively.
• Preliminary research indicates that DHA may synergistically enhance taxane cytotoxicity [143]. More
research is needed, but these findings would indicate that DHA during taxane administration may
improve the effects of chemotherapy for breast cancer patients.
• Fish and plant-based foods, however, contain different types of omega-3 fatty acids.
o Fish contains EPA and DHA, two specific fatty acids that have shown promising results in the
research literature [135,140,144].
o Fish consumption in general has been associated with a protective effect against breast cancer
[136,138,140,145].
o The plant-based omega-3 fatty acid sources, such as flaxseed and others listed in the table
below, contain ALA. In an ideal environment, ALA is converted to EPA and DHA, however, this
process is inefficient [69,142,146]. On the positive side, the conversion process is enhanced by
following a diet that is low in saturated fats and low in omega-6 fatty acids [142,147].
Omega-6 Fatty Acids
• Recent studies indicate that a high intake of omega-6 fatty acids (linoleic acid, which can
be converted to arachidonic acid) promote breast tumor development and metastasis
[117,137,138,148,149].
• A meta-analysis* of 3 cohort* studies found palmitic acid, a type of omega-6 fatty acid, to be
significantly associated with an increased risk of breast cancer [118].
• Additionally, researchers reported that arachidonic acid, an omega-6 fatty acid almost exclusively
from meat, significantly increased oxidative damage as measured by urinary biomarkers [150].
• It is known that cyclooxygenase is the rate-limiting enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of
arachidonic acid to prostaglandins. Furthermore, COX-2 is known to be overexpressed in various
human cancers. In this breast cancer study, COX-2 overexpression was significantly correlated with
larger tumor size and advanced clinical stage, which indicates a poorer prognosis [149].
• A very interesting finding was reported in a prospective study that found no overall association
between omega-6 fatty acids and risk of breast cancer [120]. However, omega-6 fat consumption
increased risk by 87% in women who consumed 25 g or less of marine omega-3 fatty acids. This
effect was even greater for advanced breast cancer.
o Thus, the balance between omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids may be of paramount
importance. This was further supported by other studies [137,138,151,152].
Fat – Bottom Line
• Less fat is better.
• Limit animal fats.
• Avoid hydrogenated fats.
• Extra-virgin olive oil, canola oil, macadamia nut oil or almond oil is preferred for salads
and cooking.
• Increase omega-3 fatty acids.
Fatty Acid Dietary Sources Recommendation
Saturated fatty acids Meats, poultry skin, baked goods,
and whole milk dairy products,
including butter, cheese, and ice
cream
Reduce or eliminate meat and
whole milk dairy products.
Trans fatty acids Margarine, fried foods, commercial
peanut butter, salad dressings and
various processed foods including
breads, crackers, cereals, and
cookies
Avoid trans or hydrogenated
fats.
Products may be labeled “trans
fat free” if they contain less
than 0.5 mg per serving.
Omega-9 fatty acids Extra-virgin olive oil, almond oil,
canola oil, macadamia nut oil,
almonds, and avocados
Include these healthy fats daily.
Limit consumption of nuts to no
more than ¼ cup with meal
or snack to limit total fat and
calories.
15
Omega-3 fatty acids:
EPA and DHA
ALA
Cold-water fish (for example:
salmon, sardines, black cod, trout,
herring), breastmilk, and DHAenriched
eggs
Flaxseeds, chia seeds, walnuts,
hempseeds, and pumpkin seeds
Include these healthy fats
daily through diet and/or
supplements.
It may be wise to consume
cold water fish or fish oil
supplements at least twice
weekly to obtain an adequate
amount of EPA and DHA.
If you choose to use a
supplement, opt for one that
is highest in EPA and DHA
concentration.
Omega-6 fatty acids:
Arachidonic acid
Linoleic acid
Meats, butter, egg yolks, whole milk,
and whole milk dairy products
Common vegetable oils, such as
corn oil, safflower oil, sunflower
oil, and cottonseed oil, and
processed foods made with these
oils
Reduce or eliminate meat and
whole milk dairy products.
Limit consumption of linoleic
acid-rich oils.
Substitute an omega-9 fatty
acid-rich oil for your current
cooking oil or fat.
Meat
• In a study of over 35,000 women, meat consumption significantly increased the risk of breast
cancer in both premenopausal and postmenopausal women [153].
o Women eating 1.75 ounces of processed meat daily increased the risk of breast cancer by
64% in postmenopausal women compared to women who did not eat meat.
• Consumption of red and fried meat quadrupled the risk of breast cancer in a case-control study in
Brazil [12].
• Meat consumption increased the risk of breast cancer risk by 56% for each additional 100 g (3.5
oz) daily of meat consumption in a French case-control study [135].
• Regular consumption of fatty red meat and pork fat increased the risk of breast cancer by 348%
and 632%, respectively in a small Brazilian study [154].
• A large case-control* study found that women who consumed very well-done meat for hamburger,
bacon, and steak had a 54%, 64%, and 221% increased risk for breast cancer, respectively [155].
o Frequent consumers of these well-done meats had a 462% greater risk of breast cancer.
16
Food Category Summary Recommendation
Fruits and vegetables One serving =
½ cup fruit or vegetable
1 cup raw leafy greens
¼ cup dried fruit or vegetable
6 oz fruit or vegetable juice
Eat 1 cup or more vegetables with
lunch and dinner.
At least 5, preferably 8-10 total
servings daily [156]
5 or more vegetable servings
3 fruit servings
Fiber Choose breads with 3 or more
grams of fiber per slice.
First ingredient on the label should
be whole or sprouted grain flour,
not white flour, unbleached white
flour, or enriched wheat flour.
Whole grains include, among
others, oats, barley, brown rice,
quinoa, amaranth, bulgur, millet,
buckwheat, spelt, wild rice, and
teff.
30-45 grams daily
This goal can be achieved
by meeting your fruit and
vegetable goal plus one
serving of legumes or at least
two servings of whole grains.
Refined carbohydrates and
sugars
Dietary sources include products
made with refined flours (for
example: white bread, white rice,
white pasta) or refined grains,
alcohol, sodas, drinks containing
added sugars, and desserts, such
as candy, cookies, cakes, and
pastries.
Limit or avoid consumption.
Meat Dietary sources include beef, pork,
and lamb.
Reduce or eliminate meat
consumption.
Avoid processed, grilled or fried
meats.
GENOTOXINS: Heterocyclic Amines (HCAs) & Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
• Natural components in meat, such as amino acids, creatine*, and polysaccharide precursors,
are converted to HCAs during high-temperature cooking. HCAs are known to cause cancer in
laboratory animals [157,158].
• While human research is forthcoming, the majority of studies [155,157-162] although not all
[163,164] have observed a significant association between HCAs and breast cancer.
• Carcinogenic activity of HCA’s is affected by various dietary factors [165]:
o Factors that enhance carcinogenesis* when combined with HCAs include:
• High-fat diet
• Caffeine
17
o Factors that inhibit carcinogenesis* when combined with HCAs include:
• DHA
• Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)
• Isoflavones
• Diallyl Sulfides (found in the allium family, such as garlic, onions, leaks, and shallots)
• Green tea catechins*
• Indole-3 carbinol
• Probiotics
• Gamma-tocopherol
• The most important variables contributing to the formation of HCAs are:
o Cooking temperature (greater than 300°F)
o Cooking time (greater than 2 minutes)
o Cooking method (frying, oven grilling/broiling, barbecuing)
• Charring of food (charcoal-broiled or smoked foods) contribute to PAHs [166].
• Meat can potentially be made “safer” to eat by being cooked in a way that does not lead to HCA
formation.
o Choose lean, well-trimmed meats to grill.
o Using marinades significantly reduces the amount of HCAs.
o Brief microwave preheating substantially reduces HCA content of cooked meat.
o Small portions require less time on the grill.
• Additionally, the type of protein cooked can also affect the concentration of HCAs. It has been
reported, for example, that chicken has more than 100 times the number of HCAs than salmon [165].
London broiled steak had more than 600 times the amount of HCAs when compared to salmon.
• Grill vegetables or meat alternatives that do not lead to the formation of HCAs or PAHs.
ALCOHOL
• Regular consumption of alcohol may increase the risk for breast cancer [167-176].
o A recent review study reported that data from many well-designed studies consistently shows
a small rise in breast cancer risk with increasing consumption of alcohol [172].
• A recent study found that as little as a half a glass of wine a day raised a woman’s risk of
developing breast cancer by 6% (increased risk by 18% in postmenopausal women) [167].
o Furthermore, 1-2 drinks a day increased risk by 21% and 2 or more drinks a day increased risk
by 37%.
o The heightened risk was more pronounced for women with ER+ and progesterone-receptor
positive (PR+) tumor types.
•Women who drank two or more alcoholic drinks daily in the five years prior to diagnosis had an
18
82% increased risk of breast cancer compared to non drinkers [173].
•A pooled analysis of six prospective studies suggests that the risk of breast cancer increases
linearly by 9% with each 10 g /day (~ 1 drink) alcohol [177]. The risk increased to 41% when
comparing women who consumed 30-60 g/day (~2-5 drinks) to nondrinkers.
•A large meta-analysis* revealed that one drink daily increased breast cancer risk by 11% [178]. A
later meta-analysis* found similar findings [179].
•Since then, another meta-analysis* reported that breast cancer risk increased by 32% and 46% in
women who consumed 35-44 g alcohol (~3-4 drinks) daily and 45 g or more (~4.5 drinks or more)
daily, respectively [170].
o For each additional 10 g of alcohol (~1 drink) daily, risk increased by 7%.
•Other studies [168] claim that one glass of alcohol daily does not increase risk, but consuming 2-5
drinks daily increases the risk of breast cancer by 40% compared to non-drinkers [168].
o Greatest risk was among heavy drinkers who were also postmenopausal and had a history of
benign breast disease or who used hormone replacement therapy (HRT) [168].
•Similarly, a French study found that drinking 10-12 g wine (~ 1-1.5 drinks) daily lowered the risk of
breast cancer, but when intake increased above 12 g daily, the risk of breast cancer increased [180].
•Among ER+ postmenopausal women, those who consumed approximately 3 drinks or more daily
had a 76% increased risk of breast cancer when compared with women who did not consume
alcohol [181].
o The association between alcohol and ER- tumors was less clearly associated.
o Additionally, there was no clear association between alcohol and premenopausal risk of breast
cancer.
•A recent cohort* study of postmenopausal women reported that alcohol consumption was
associated with an increased risk of breast cancer in ER+, but not ER- tumors [182].
•On a similar note, a recent meta-analysis reported that an increase in 10 g (~1 drink) alcohol daily
increased the risk of breast cancer, especially for women with ER+ breast cancers –ER+ (12%
↑ risk), all ER- (7% ↑ risk), ER+PR+ (11% ↑ risk) ER+PR- (15% ↑ risk), ER-PR- (no effect) [174].
•Petri and colleagues [171] observed a stronger relationship between alcohol and breast cancer in
postmenopausal women compared to premenopausal women.
o Premenopausal women drinking more than 27 drinks per week had a 3.5% higher risk than
women who had one drink per week.
o Postmenopausal women drinking six or more alcoholic beverages per week had a 2.4% higher
risk than women who had one drink per week.
•On the contrary, women who drank about 1.5 drinks per week had a 40% greater likelihood of
developing breast cancer compared to non drinkers and this was most pronounced in women who
were premenopausal at diagnosis [175].
•Alcohol consumption (1 drink/day) during a woman’s fifties increased risk for postmenopausal
breast cancer by 12% in a large cohort* study, but statistical significance was not reached for
women in their twenties, thirties, or forties [169].
•These differing findings between pre- and postmenopausal women are likely related to the effect of
alcohol on estrogen levels. Alcohol appears to increase endogenous* estrogen levels [183-187].
•Folate, a B vitamin, may be of even greater significance with alcohol consumption. It has been
observed that women with low folate and high alcohol consumption had a 43% greater risk of
19
breast cancer when compared with nondrinkers with adequate folate intake [188].
Alcohol –Bottom Line
•It is best to limit or avoid alcohol.
ADEQUATE FLUIDS
The functions of water in the body include the following:
o Carries nutrients and waste products.
o Participates in chemical reactions.
o Acts as a lubricant and cushion around joints.
o Acts as a shock absorber in the eyes and spinal cord.
o Aids in the body’ temperature regulation.
o Maintains blood volume.
•Increased fluid intake is needed for a high fiber diet.
•Drink plenty of water daily to help meet fluid needs.
CALORIC INTAKE
•The risk of breast cancer is much higher in industrial countries than in developing countries where
women are characterized by lower energy intake and higher energy expenditure.
•Modest caloric restriction has been shown to inhibit tumor growth in animal models decrease
oxidative DNA damage [189].
•Modest caloric restriction has been shown to decrease oxidative DNA damage.
•The mechanism involved may be related to the decrease in IGF-I observed when caloric intake is
restricted [190,191].
•Furthermore, evidence suggests that a high calorie diet may increase IGF-I levels [192].
BODY MASS
•Epidemiologic evidence suggests a positive association between body mass and postmenopausal
breast cancer [193-196].
o Increasing BMI was associated with a 40% increased incidence and mortality of breast cancer
in postmenopausal women [197].
o Women with a BMI of ≥5 had a 58% increased risk of breast cancer [5].
o Obese postmenopausal women had 3.26-fold increased risk for breast cancer compared to
healthy weight women [198].
o In women with breast cancer, height and BMI were associated with postmenopausal breast
cancer [199].
20
•This effect was most pronounced in women with ER+ tumors.
o Obese postmenopausal women had a 50% increased risk for breast cancer [196].
•A recent case-control* study of 2000 women found that women who gain weight, particularly after
age 50, significantly increase their risk of breast cancer [200]. Conversely, women (young and
middle-aged) who lose weight may decrease the risk of breast cancer.
o This study suggests excess body fat increases estrogen levels, which may in turn increase the
risk for breast cancer.
o An earlier study reported similar findings with total weight gain serving as a strong predictor of
breast cancer risk, specifically among former and never HRT users [193].
•Increasing BMI was associated with a 40% increased incidence and mortality of breast cancer in
postmenopausal women [197].
•Results from a systematic review showed that, when adjusted for BMI, a larger waist size increased
risk of breast cancer among premenopausal women [202]. This study supports the idea that central
obesity is of greater concern than general obesity in regards to breast cancer risk.
o However, for postmenopausal women, a large trial found that, while general obesity was a
significant predictor of breast cancer risk, central obesity did not appear to be associated with
increased risk [203].
•Total body weight, BMI, and hip circumference were significantly associated with breast cancer risk
among HRT nonusers; obese women (BMI > 30) had a 31% greater risk compared to women with
BMI < 25 [203].
•Overweight or obesity is associated with poorer prognosis in the majority of the studies that have
examined body mass and breast cancer [204-210].
•Various studies report increased BMI or body weight to be a significant risk factor for recurrent
disease, survival, or both [204-210].
o May be related to increased estrogen [196,211,212] and elevated insulin* and IGF, which can
stimulate cell proliferation [101,204].
o Obese postmenopausal women (BMI >30) had 35% higher concentrations of estrone* and
130% higher concentrations of estradiol* compared with lighter-weight women (BMI < 22.0)
[211]. Additionally, free estradiol* and free testosterone were two to three times greater in
overweight and obese women compared with lighter-weight women.
o Recent findings indicated that oxidative damage, measured by urinary biomarkers, was
significantly greater in women with a higher BMI [150].
o Obesity among premenopausal women, however, may not be associated with increased risk
of breast cancer. Nonetheless, obesity during menstruating years is associated with obesity
throughout life and therefore to an eventual increased risk of breast cancer [132]. However,
other research suggests a stronger relationship between body weight and breast cancer in
premenopausal women [208,210].
o A cohort* study of 1300 women reported that breast cancer recurrence and death increased
with body weight in both premenopausal and postmenopausal women [158].
•Body weight prior to breast cancer diagnosis significantly increased risk of recurrence and death in
nonsmokers [208].
o Additionally, nonsmokers who gained weight after diagnosis had an elevated risk of breast cancer
death during follow-up (median, 9 years), compared with women who maintained their weight.
21
•Women with a BMI of ≥5 had a 58% increased risk of breast cancer [5].
•Research suggests a potential link between obesity, diabetes mellitus and breast cancer [214].
•Eating foods high in vitamin C, such as fruits and vegetables, may provide a protective effect from
breast cancer for overweight women (BMI>25) [215].
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
•Low levels of physical exercise appear to be associated with the risk of breast cancer [172,195,216-218].
•Lifetime total physical activity has been associated with a decreased risk of breast cancer
[219-221].
o Some studies indicate that physical activity has a more significant effect in reducing risk of
breast cancer in postmenopausal women [222].
o Exercise between the years of 14-20 appears to be the most beneficial in reducing risk of
breast cancer [219].
•A case-control* study reported significantly reduced breast cancer risk among women who
maintained, on average, 17.6 (MET)-hr of activity/week2 from menarche onward [195]. This
decreased risk with physical activity was limited to women without a family history of breast cancer
when adjusted for BMI.
•A cohort* study reported that postmenopausal women who were most physically active (> 42.0
MET-h/week)3 at baseline had a 29% lower incidence of breast cancer than active women with the
least activity (> 0-7.0 MET-h/week) 4 [218]. This difference was greatest for women who did not use
HRT at enrollment.
•Women who engaged in regular strenuous physical activity at age 35 had a 14% reduced risk of
breast cancer compared with less active women [217]. A similar trend was observed for regular
strenuous activity at age 18 and at age 50. These findings were consistent with women who did
and did not use HRT.
•Furthermore, a prospective observational study reported that physical activity after a breast cancer
diagnosis may reduce the risk of death from this disease [216]. The greatest benefit occurred in
women who performed the equivalent of walking 3 to 5 hours per week at an average pace. The
benefit of physical activity was particularly apparent among women with hormone-responsive
tumors.
•As noted earlier, the combination of consuming five or more daily servings of vegetables and fruits,
and accumulating 540+ metabolic equivalent tasks-min/wk (equivalent to walking 30 minutes
6 d/wk) decreased mortality by nearly 50% [11].
o The effect was stronger in women who had ER+ cancers.
•Increased physical activity following breast cancer diagnosis significantly decreased the risk of
dying from breast cancer and improved overall survival when compared with women who exercised
<2.8 MET-h/wk [224].
•Survival may be enhanced by physical activity in those women who exercised the year prior to
diagnosis, especially women who were overweight or obese [225].
•Exercise was associated with improved quality of life among survivors [226,227].
22
•Physical activity can help ease cancer-related fatigue during and following cancer treatment
[228,229].
•Physical activity may reduce the risk of breast cancer through an influence on ovarian function and
a decrease in progesterone and estrogen concentrations via reduced body fat [217]. Furthermore,
exercise may increase sex hormone-binding globulin* (SHBG) levels and thereby reduce estradiol*.
•An increase in lean body mass (often achieved through physical activity) was associated with
a favorable change in 2-hydroxyestrone: 16-α-hydroxyestrone, a proposed biomarker of breast
cancer risk [230].
•Additionally, exercise reduces serum insulin levels [231], serum IGF-I levels [217,232], and improves
insulin* sensitivity [217].
•Greater physical activity in obese women was associated with significantly less mammographic
density, possibly suggesting another mechanism for the protective effect of physical activity [233].
•Healthy weight control is encouraged with an emphasis on exercise to preserve or increase lean
muscle mass.
2 This is equivalent to a 150lb individual burning 1257 kcals/week through physical activity.
3 This is equivalent to a 150lb individual burning about 3000 kcals/week through physical activity.
4 This is equivalent to a 150lb individual burning 500 kcals/week or less through physical activity.
Additional Nutritional and Lifestyle Factors for Breast Cancer Survivors
ANTIOXIDANTS* –Found in abundance in fruits and vegetables!
•Prevent oxidative damage in body cells.
o Research indicates a link between oxidant damage and breast carcinogenesis*.
•Examples of antioxidant* nutrients and non-nutrients include vitamins A, C, and E, selenium,
lycopene, and beta-carotene.
•Note that patients may be advised to NOT consume high-dose antioxidant* supplements during
chemotherapy or radiation therapy. Antioxidant* consumption via food sources and a basic
multivitamin supplement are very safe.
Selenium
•Antioxidant* that scavenges free radicals and suppresses damage due to oxidation. Also is
essential for the immune system.
•Promising evidence indicates that selenium may decrease the risk of breast cancer [234-239].
o Inhibits cell proliferation and induces apoptosis* [238,239].
•Selenium may interfere and alter estrogen receptors decreasing mammary tumor incidence [236].
• Research shows that selenium reduces the incidence of malignant cells in animal models [237], and
enhances the effects of chemotherapeutic drugs, such as [235] taxol and adriamycin [235,239].
• Toenail selenium concentrations tended to be lower in postmenopausal breast cancer patients when
compared with healthy non-cancer patients, but the differences did not reach statistical significance [240].
o Interestingly, this study also found that plasma triiodothyronine (T3) (a thyroid hormone)
concentration was positively associated with toenail selenium in breast cancer patients and
controls. T3 concentration was significantly lower in breast cancer patients compared to
healthy non-cancer patients.
• A recent study suggested the combination of selenium and iodine, typical of a Japanese diet, act
synergistically in decreasing breast cancer risk [241]. It is known that iodine plays an important role in
thyroid function. Thus, selenium status may affect both thyroid hormone status and iodine availability.
• Selenium is a precursor to the glutathione* (GSH) antioxidant* system. GSH is the principal
protective mechanism of the cell and is a crucial factor in the development of the immune response
by the immune cells [242].
o Studies suggest the ratio of selenium to glutathione* is at lower levels in breast cancer patients
[234]. Research indicates that dietary selenium supplements correct abnormal glutathione*
turnover.
Turmeric (Curcumin)
• Curcumin, the yellow pigment and active component of turmeric and many curries, is a potent
antioxidant*, that exhibits chemopreventive and growth inhibitory activity in several tumor cell lines
[243-246].
• Evidence suggests that curcumin may suppress tumor initiation, promotion and metastasis [245,247].
o This may occur through enhanced apoptosis* [243,245].
• Additionally, curcumin promotes detoxification in the liver and possesses anti-inflammatory activity,
possibly by inhibiting COX-2 activity [248,249].
Vitamin C
• Most research [250-255], although not all [7,19,256,257], has shown no protective relationship
between vitamin C and the risk of breast cancer.
o Vitamin C induces apoptotic effects on breast cancer cells [257].
• Low plasma levels of vitamin C have been associated with a greater risk of breast cancer [258].
• Dietary vitamin C has been significantly associated with reduced mortality in breast cancer
survivors [19].
• Furthermore, risk of recurrence and mortality was reduced in women who consumed vitamin C
supplements for more than three years [259].
Vitamin E
• Vitamin E acts as a cellular antioxidant* and an anti-proliferating agent. It consists of both
tocopherols and tocotrienols.
24
o Some research indicates that tocotrienols are the components of vitamin E responsible for
growth inhibition in human breast cancer cells [260].
• Research is inconsistent on the protective effects of vitamin E and breast cancer. Data from most
prospective studies have not revealed a protective relationship between vitamin E and risk of breast
cancer [250].
• Supplemental vitamin E does not consistently appear to offer protection against breast cancer [150]
although taking vitamin E for more than three years has been associated with a modest protective
effect [259]. Additionally, these researchers reported a decreased risk of recurrence and mortality
associated with long-term use of vitamin E supplements.
• However, low plasma levels of vitamin E have been associated with a greater risk of breast cancer [258].
• It was demonstrated recently that dietary vitamin E, unlike supplemental sources of vitamin E,
significantly reduced oxidative damage as measured by urinary biomarkers [150].
• Note that findings suggest that vitamin E supplements may interfere with the therapeutic effects of
tamoxifen [261].
Resveratrol
• Resveratrol is a polyphenol found primarily in red grape skins with known antioxidant and antiinflammatory
properties, and is emerging as a potent chemopreventive and anticancer drug [262].
• Resveratrol has exhibited potential anticarcinogenic activities in several studies.
o Reduced tumor growth, decreased angiogenesis, and induced apoptosis in mice [263].
o Less tumors and longer tumor latency in a rat study [264].
o May inhibit IGF-I mediated cell migration in breast cancer cells [265].
o Induces apoptosis in breast cancer cells [262,263].
o Decreased levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in breast cancer cells [263].
o Inhibited cell growth and regulates IGF-II in breast cancer cells [266].
• Recent evidence indicates that resveratrol and glucans have significant synergistic effects on
immune function [267].
Nutrient/Phytonutrient Summary Recommendation
Selenium Dietary sources include Brazil nuts,
seafood, enriched brewer’s yeast,
and grains.
Selenium content depends
somewhat on the amount of
selenium in the soil in which the
products are grown.
200 mcg selenium daily through
diet and/or supplements
Two Brazil nuts provide 200
mcg selenium.
Turmeric (curcumin) A deep orange-yellow spice
commonly used in curries and
Indian cuisine.
Eat liberally.
25
Vitamin C Dietary sources include various fruits
and vegetables, including papaya,
citrus fruits, kiwi, cantaloupe,
mango, strawberries, bell peppers,
broccoli, and tomatoes.
Include these fruits and
vegetables daily.
Vitamin E Dietary sources include vegetable
oils, wheat germ, sweet potatoes,
nuts, seeds, and avocados.
Eat vitamin E-rich foods
regularly.
More research is needed to
assess whether or not
supplements would be
beneficial.
Resveratrol Dietary sources include grapes,
grape products, peanuts, soy,
mulberries, and cranberries.
Eat resveratrol-rich foods
regularly.
More research is needed
to assess whether or not
supplements would be
beneficial.
Flax
• Flax may also work to block tumor growth, inhibit angiogenesis*, and enhance the immune system [268].
• Consumption of 5 or 10 g flax for 7 weeks significantly decreased blood levels of estrone* and
estradiol* [269].
• Flax has been shown to enhance the effects of tamoxifen [270].
• Flaxseed is the greatest source of mammalian lignans* [271,272], phytoestrogens found in flax,
which appear to bind with estrogen and lower circulating levels of estrogen. This action may act as
one of the protective mechanisms of flax for breast cancer.
o Lignans* facilitate the removal of estrogens via increased retention within the gut, which are
later eliminated in the feces [273,274].
• Furthermore, lignans* positively influence estrogen metabolism by improving the ratio of 2:16a
hydroxyestrone [273,274].
• A recent study indicates that flaxseed (25 g daily) and its metabolites, such as lignans*, reduced
tumor growth in patients with breast cancer [271].
• Additionally, a recent pilot study observed lower breast density with a greater intake of dietary
lignans* [275]. Dense breasts are a risk factor for breast cancer.
• Flax has been shown in vitro and in human trials to decrease tumor proliferation of breast cancer
cells [271].
• An animal study reported that flaxseed inhibited established human breast cancer growth and
reduced incidence of metastasis by 45% [272].
• Tumor growth was reduced by 26% and 38%, respectively, when mice consumed a 5% flaxseed
diet and 10% flaxseed diet compared with those who ate no flaxseed [270].
o This effect may be partially due to its downregulation of IGF-I [270,272,276], decreased cell
proliferation [270], and increased apoptosis [270].
26
GREEN TEA
• Tea contains phytonutrients* known as polyphenols* (flavonoids) that provide antioxidant* and
anticancer properties [277].
o May block the formation of cancer-causing nitrosamines* [278].
o Prevents DNA damage [279].
o May inhibit tumor growth and induce apoptosis* [280-282].
o Increase immune response [281].
o Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) alters gene expresssion to lower the risk of breast cancer
[283].
• There is a significant amount of in vitro and in vivo evidence suggesting tea polyphenols* have
chemopreventive agents against various cancers [280,284,285]. More human data is needed.
o Green tea and its catechin* components inhibit breast cancer growth and angiogenesis* in both
in vitro and in vivo studies.
o Studies suggest green tea extract has been successful inhibiting cell proliferation and breast
cancer [277].
• Many studies indicate a lower risk of breast cancer with green tea consumption, but more research
is needed for conclusive evidence [286-289].
• EGCG has been shown in human studies to inhibit human breast cancer cell proliferation, reduce
tumor invasion and metastasis and prevent recurrence of breast cancer in early stage cases (stage I
& II) [290-292].
• A meta-analysis* reported that drinking green tea decreased the risk of breast cancer by 22% when
comparing women with the highest vs lowest intake [286].
• A case-control study* found that green tea consumption was associated with a significant reduction
in risk of breast cancer [289].
o Risk ↓ by 13% for women consuming 1-249 g of dried green tea leaves annually.
o Risk ↓ by 32% for women consuming 250-499 g of dried green tea leaves annually.
o Risk ↓ by 41% for women consuming 500-749 g of dried green tea leaves annually.
o Risk ↓ by 39% for women consuming ≥750 g of dried green tea leaves annually.
o Moreover, protection was greater with a longer duration of drinking green tea, a greater number
of cups consumed and the more new batches prepared daily.
• However, combined studies of 35000 Japanese women found that green tea did not affect risk of
breast cancer [293].
• Research suggests that while green tea did significantly decrease tumor mass, when green tea was
combined with soy phytonutrients*, the tumor mass decreased even further [294]. Further evidence
indicates a possible synergistic relationship between soy and green tea consumption [288].
• Similarly, a synergistic effect of green tea and Ganoderma lucidum extracts on the suppression of
growth and invasiveness of metastatic breast cancers was observed [295].
• Additionally, green tea increased the inhibitory effect of tamoxifen on the proliferation of ER + breast
cancer cells [296].
• Furthermore, some evidence suggests that the association of tea catechins* and breast cancer may
depend on specific genotypes [284].
27
SOY
• Associated with reduced rates of heart disease [297-299], protection against osteoporosis
[300,301], and certain types of cancer, including breast cancer [302,303].
• While there has been contention regarding soy and breast cancer, research findings are
predominantly neutral [304], if not protective [6,305,306].
o The majority of short-term soy intervention studies conducted in premenopausal women show
a reduction in endogenous* estrogen levels in association with soy intake, and thus, possibly
protecting from breast cancer.
o The conflicting data on the effects of soy isoflavones and breast tumor growth are based on in
vitro (test tube) studies.
• Recent human research has been more promising.
o A statistically significant inverse association between plasma genistein and breast cancer was
reported among Japanese women [305].
o A recent meta-analysis of well-controlled studies that included high-soy-consuming Asians
reported a significant trend of decreasing risk with increasing soy food intake. Risk was lowest
among those who consumed ≥20 mg isoflavones daily [306].
o High soybean intake in Korean women resulted in a significantly lower risk of breast cancer in
postmenopausal women [6].
• It’s becoming more apparent that the timing of soy exposure is critical. Consumption of soy foods
or an exposure to a soy isoflavone genistein during childhood and adolescence in women, and
before puberty onset in animals, appears to reduce the risk of breast cancer later in life [307].
• The type of soy consumed may provide some insight to the inconsistent findings. It has been
demonstrated that soy processing increases tumor growth in mice for postmenopausal ER+ breast
cancer [308].
o The difference in tumor growth observed may be related to isoflavone metabolism and
bioavailability, but more research is needed [309].
o Nonetheless, these studies suggest that WHOLE SOY FOODS appear to not have a
negative effect on postmenopausal ER+ breast cancer.
o A recent cohort* study of breast cancer patients found that soy foods had no negative impact
on breast cancer survival [310,311].
• An Asian-American study on soy found that women, pre- and postmenopausal, who consumed
tofu, had a 15% reduced risk of breast cancer with each additional serving per week [302].
• Moreover, a recent trial reported that women in the highest tertile intake of tofu had a 51% decrease
risk of premenopausal breast cancer when compared with women in the lowest tertile [303]. No
statistical significant association was observed between soy intake and breast cancer risk among
postmenopausal women.
• Soy consumption has been suggested to exert potential cancer-preventive effects in
premenopausal women, such as increased menstrual cycle length and SHBG* levels and reduced
estrogen levels.
o 40 mg/day soy isoflavones increased menstrual cycle length in Western women [312].
o Research also suggests that soy isoflavones may significantly improve the
2-hydroxyestrone:16-a-hydroxyestrone ratio [313].
28
o Additionally, soy intake increases time spent in the follicular cycles, when proliferation is at its
lowest [312].
• Furthermore, vegan protein sources, such as soy, appear to decrease circulating IGF-I activity,
which may impede cancer induction [298,314,315].
• Recent literature assessing the effects of soy and tamoxifen have yielded neutral [316] or beneficial
findings [317].
o In a study of Asian American breast cancer survivors on tamoxifen, soy intake had no effect on
levels of tamoxifen or its metabolites [316].
o The combination of tamoxifen and genistein inhibited the growth of ER+/HER2- human breast
cancer cells in a synergistic manner in vitro [317].
Source Amount of Soy
Protein (gm)
Amount of Soy
Isoflavones (mg)
Miso (1 tbsp) 2 7-10*
Soybeans, edamame (1/2 cup) 11 35*
Soymilk (8 fl oz) 10 23*
Soy nuts (1/4 cup) 19 40-50*
Tempeh (1/2 cup) 19.5 36*
Tofu (4 oz) 13 39*
* Isoflavone content varies by brand
Vitamin D
• Epidemiological studies suggest an inverse relationship between sun exposure, serum levels of
25(OH)-vitamin D, and vitamin D intake and the risk of developing and/or surviving cancer [318].
o Possible mechanisms that may explain the protective effects of vitamin D may be its role as
a nuclear transcription factor that regulates cell growth, differentiation, apoptosis and a wide
range of cellular mechanisms central to the development of cancer.
o Furthermore, breast density, a factor that may increase the risk of breast cancer, was inversely
associated with vitamin D intake [319].
• The women in the Nurses’ Health Study observed a 30% reduction in risk of breast cancer
comparing the highest with lowest quintiles of 25(OH)-vitamin D levels. [320].
•Post-menopausal breast cancer risk was significantly inversely associated with serum 25(OH)-
vitamin D levels [321].
o Risk decreased as women’s levels increased from 30 nM (12 ng/ml) to ≥75 nM (30 ng/ml).
•It is now believed that the recommended vitamin D dose should be between 800 and 2,000 IU per
day.
o Research indicates that vitamin D3 (cholecaciferol) is better absorbed than vitamin D2
(ergocalciferol) [322].
29
• Due to the likelihood of a biochemical deficiency without clinical symptoms or signs, a serum
25(OH)-vitamin D level is recommended.
o Optimal serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D levels have not been established though research
suggests 36-40 ng/ml may be ideal [323]. Some believe the normal level of vitamin D should be
50-60 ng/ml.
o While supplementation may be recommended, more appropriate dosing of vitamin D
supplementation can be made once a serum 25(OH)-vitamin D level has been established.
Food or Beverage Summary Recommendation
Flaxseed Good source of omega-3 fatty
acids and fiber, contains protein,
calcium, potassium, B vitamins,
iron, and boron.
Opt for ground flax seeds rather
than whole flax seeds, flax seed
oil, flax supplements to increase
bioavailability.
Flax seeds may be ground in a
coffee grinder, blender, or food
processor.
2 Tbsp ground flaxseed daily
Flax can have a laxativelike
effect, thus, it is wise
to gradually increase
consumption.
Sprinkle into various foods
and beverages, including
hot cereals, tomato sauces,
fruit smoothies, brown rice or
other grains.
Store flax in the refrigerator or
freezer.
Green tea Green tea contains does contain
caffeine though much less than
coffee or black tea.
If opting for decaffeinated green
tea, opt for those naturally
decaffeinated with water as typical
caffeine extraction results in a
significant loss of phytonutrients.
1-4 cups daily
Soy Contains various nutrients, including
protein, fiber, calcium, and B
vitamins.
Rich in antioxidants*, known as
isoflavones, namely genistein and
daidzein.
Among others, dietary sources
include soybeans, edamame, tofu,
soymilk, tempeh, miso, and soy
nuts.
Unless soy has been a part
of your diet for years,
postmenopausal individuals
with ER+ breast cancer
may be advised to limit soy
consumption to 1-3 daily
servings.
Soy supplements or
isoflavone extracts are not
recommended.
Vitamin D A fat-soluble vitamin that we generate
through skin synthesis of sunlight
(ultraviolet rays).
Dietary sources include cold-water
fish, eggs, and fortified products,
such as milk, soy milk, and cereals.
400-2000 IU daily
Maintain serum 25 (OH)-vitamin
D >35 ng/mL.
30
MELATONIN
• Melatonin is a hormone produced by the pineal gland. Its primary function involves the regulation of
the body’s circadian rhythm, endocrine secretions, and sleep patterns.
• Some research indicates that individuals with low levels of melatonin are at greater risk for breast
cancer.
• The risk of breast cancer was reduced by 33% in postmenopausal women who slept 9+ hours
compared to those who slept ≤6 hours daily [324].
o Melatonin levels were 42% higher in those who slept 9+ hours vs ≤6 hours daily.
o Previous studies have reported an increased risk of breast cancer in night-shift workers who
are exposed to light at night [325-327].
• It may be that the length of time working night shifts makes a difference as
evidenced by this study where women who reported more than 20 years of rotating
night shift work faced an increased risk of breast cancer compared with women who
did not report any rotating night shift work [326].
o In vitro and animal research has supported the protective effect of melatonin against breast
cancer [328].
o A recent study found that women with higher urinary melatonin levels had a 30-41% reduced
risk of breast cancer [329].
• Melatonin may act by:
o Inhibiting cell proliferation [330,331].
o Inducing apoptosis* [332].
o Enhancing the immune system [330,333].
• May improve survival in cancer patients by protecting the immune system from
damage caused by chemotherapy [332].
o Reducing IGF-I [334,335].
o Decreasing the number and activity of estrogen receptors, thus reducing ways that the cancer
cell connects to estrogen [336].
• Various studies indicate that melatonin may inhibit breast cancer by interfering with estrogen
pathways, thus acting in an anti-estrogenic manner [331,333,337,338].
o Melatonin decreases the formation of estrogen from androgens by inhibiting aromatase activity
[331].
• Furthermore, the combination of melatonin and retinoids* [339] as well as the combination of melatonin
and vitamin D3 [340] appear to work synergistically to inhibit the growth of breast cancer cells.
• Melatonin does have blood thinning properties, thus it is recommended to not use supplemental
melatonin 7-10 days prior to surgery.
FOOD SAFETY
• Especially important for those with weakened or impaired immune systems and while on
chemotherapy
31
• The following recommendations have been adapted from guidelines provided by the American
Cancer Society.
o Wash foods thoroughly before eating.
o Keep all aspects of food preparation meticulously clean.
o Use special care in handling raw meats, poultry, and eggs.
• Thoroughly clean all utensils, countertops, cutting boards, and sponges that
contacted raw meat.
• Thaw meats and fish in the refrigerator.
o Transfer large volumes of leftovers, such as soup, rice, or casseroles, to shallow containers and
place in refrigerator. This process ensures proper cooling.
o Do not eat perishable foods that have been left out of the refrigerator for more than two hours.
o Store foods at low temperatures (less than 40oF) to minimize bacterial growth.
o When eating in restaurants, avoid foods that may have bacterial contamination, including sushi,
salad bars, buffets, unpasteurized beverages or food products, and raw or undercooked meat,
poultry, fish, and eggs.
SUMMARY – HEALTHY BREAST CANCER DIET
• Eat 8 to 10 colorful fruit and vegetable servings daily
o Two to three pieces of fruit
o One cup or more of vegetables with lunch and dinner
o 8 fl oz vegetable juice
• Consume 30 to 45 grams of fiber daily
o You will likely meet your fiber goal if you eat 8 to 10 servings of fruits and vegetables plus one
serving of beans/legumes or at least two servings of whole grains daily.
• Avoid processed and refined grains/flours/sugars
o Keep WHITE off your plate: bread, pasta, rice, cream sauces, cakes, and more.
• Limit meats and whole milk dairy products
• Include healthy fats like cold-water fish, flaxseed, walnuts, soybeans, olive oil, avocados
• Eat 2 Tbsp ground flax daily
• Limit alcohol consumption
• Drink 1 to 4 cups of green tea daily
• Maintain serum 25 (OH)-vitamin D levels above 35 ng/mL
• Drink plenty of fluids, water or non-caffeinated beverages, daily to help meet fluid needs
• Engage in daily physical activity to help achieve and maintain a healthy weight
32
Bone Health
• Pre- and postmenopausal survivors of breast cancer are at great risk for development of
osteoporosis.
o Thus, screening and preventive strategies for osteoporosis are imperative.
• Even small amounts of increased bone mass provide great risk reduction for fractures.
• Generally, humans reach peak bone mass around 30 years. After the age of 30, the goal is to
maintain or prevent loss of bone mass.
o On average, humans lose 0.3 – 0.5% bone mass yearly after 30 years.
• First signs of osteoporosis are seen in spine, hip, and wrist.
o Symptoms include back pain or tenderness, loss of height, and slight curving of upper back.
• Risks for osteoporosis include: female, Asian or white ethnicity, age, menopause, amenorrhea, low
testosterone levels in men, sedentary lifestyle, family history, diet low in calcium, diet low in vitamin
D, excessive alcohol and tobacco use, excessive caffeine use, diet high in sodium, diet excessive in
protein or very low in protein, certain medications (diuretics, steroids, thyroid meds), celiac disease
• Many nutrients have bone-building effects, including calcium, vitamin D, phosphorus, magnesium,
vitamin K, potassium, and boron (see table below).
• Exercise increases bone mass before menopause and slows bone loss after menopause.
o Include weight-bearing exercise, such as walking, jogging, skiing, stair climbing, aerobics, and
others.
o Resistance training exercises are useful to strengthen muscles and bones.
• Recent research indicates diets high in fruits and vegetables have a positive effect on bone health.
o Good source of minerals (potassium, magnesium) that may have direct effects on bone cells.
o Counteract acid environment.
o Lower urinary calcium loss.
o Enhanced calcium bioavailability of most vegetables.
• Soy protein and/or soy isoflavones have been proposed to delay bone loss.
o May help to prevent urinary calcium loss.
o Soy contains phytosterols that mimic the actions of estrogen.
o May help to prevent rapid bone loss of menopause years.
o Studies report that soy may ↑ BMD.
• Calcium supplements
o Take 500 mg or less per meal to maximize absorption.
o Calcium citrate, lactate, or gluconate are recommended if you have iron deficiency.
• These do not decrease iron absorption like calcium carbonate.
o Calcium carbonate is least expensive, but may increase gas and bloating in some individuals.
33
• What about antacids with calcium?
o Trace minerals like zinc or iron may be less well-dissolved and absorbed with a lower stomach
acidity.
o If you’re only taking enough antacid for the purpose of calcium needs, should not present a
major problem, but not ideal.
o May interact with thyroid medication.
• DEXA (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry) instruments allow rapid, painless, noninvasive, and highly
reproducible measurements of bone density to be made [341].
o These measurements are used to diagnose osteoporosis, low bone density, and risk of fracture
and to determine rates of bone loss or the effectiveness of treatment over time [342,343].
Bone Health – Bottom Line
• Balanced diet – high in fruits and vegetables
• Calcium
o Aim for 3 rich sources daily.
o Include a supplement if necessary.
• Vitamin D
o Meet needs from sun, multivitamin, or other supplement.
o Consider serum vitamin D test.
• Exercise
o Weight-bearing exercise for at least 30 minutes on most days.
• Good posture
• Request to have a full body DEXA scan.
34
Bone Building Nutrients
Nutrient* Dietary Sources Function Recommendation
Calcium Dairy products, canned
fish with soft bones,
beans, leafy greens
(especially collard
greens, bok choy, and
kale), tofu, almonds,
fortified products, such
as soy milk, cereal, and
orange juice
↑ calcium absorption
and bioavailability from
foods, especially plant
sources
Vitamin D is essential for
calcium absorption.
1000-1200 mg
daily
Vitamin K Dark leafy greens, liver,
tomatoes, soybeans,
and garbanzo beans
Also produced by
intestinal bacteria
Associated with ↓ bone
turnover and ↓ urinary
calcium excretion.
90 mcg daily
Phosphorus Meat, poultry, fish, eggs,
milk, products, legumes,
and nuts
Combines with calcium to
strengthen bones.
700 mg daily
Magnesium Whole grains, nuts, seeds,
spinach, and most fruits
and vegetables
Important in calcium and
potassium uptake.
320 mg daily
Potassium Bananas, strawberries,
tomatoes, prunes,
potatoes, spinach, and
beans
Associated with ↓
urinary calcium and
phosphorus excretion.
4700 mg daily
Boron Apples, avocados, beans,
milk, peanuts, peanut
butter, pecans, raisins,
prunes, and potatoes
Improves calcium
absorption.
↓ effects of vitamin D and
magnesium deficiency.
2 mg daily
Zinc Seafood, meats, tofu,
whole grains, blackeyed
peas, wheat bran
and germ
Important in calcium
uptake and immune
function.
8-15 mg daily
* Vitamin D is listed in the previous table
35
Hot Flashes
• Hot flashes are a major cause of morbidity among postmenopausal women, including many
survivors of breast cancer.
• Approximately 75% of postmenopausal women who had breast cancer report experiencing hot
flashes [344].
o More than 90% of young survivors also experience hot flashes, which can be more severe and
long lasting, with iatrogenic ovarian ablation or antiestrogen therapy.
• Various non-hormonal therapies have been studied for improving hot flashes, including soy, black
cohosh, red clover, and vitamin E – none have shown much significant clinical value.
• Supplemental vitamin E at 400 IU/day [345] and 800 IU/day [346] has shown some limited efficacy
in improving hot flashes.
• Systematic reviews of randomized controlled trials have observed contradictory results, and
meta-analyses* demonstrate no statistically significant reduction of vasomotor symptoms for
phytoestrogens [347].
o Individual trials report significant reductions in vasomotor symptoms for red clover and soy
phytoestrogens.
o The placebo effect in many of these studies was quite strong [348].
o Studies assessing black cohosh and red clover have had inconsistent results, with some trials
showing benefit and some no difference compared with placebo [349].
o In one study, women receiving black cohosh reported a mean decrease in hot flash score of
20% compared with a 27% decrease for patients on placebo [350].
• Mean hot flash frequency was reduced 17% on black cohosh and 26% on placebo.
o A previous study reported reduced hot flashes with soy isoflavones by 9 to 40% in some trials,
but most trials observed no effect when compared with placebo [349].
• Black cohosh extract had no effect on serum estrogenic markers [351].
• The use of black cohosh appears to be safe in breast cancer patients [352].
• Psychoeducational interventions, including relaxation, seem to alleviate hot flashes in menopausal
women and breast cancer survivors; however, the methodological quality of published research has
been considered to be fair or poor [353].
WORDS OF WISDOM
“Let food be your medicine and medicine be your food.”
– Hippocrates
For additional information or resources, please visit the Ida and Joseph Friend Cancer Resource
Center at 1600 Divisadero St. on the first floor, or call at (415) 885-3693. The information in this
publication is designed for educational purposes only and is not intended to replace the advice of
your physician or health care provider, as each patient’s circumstances are individual. We encourage
you to discuss with your physician any questions and concerns that you may have.
36
Three Day Menu Plan: 3 Meals + Snack
This menu is based on 1600 calories, calories can be adjusted by altering portion sizes. The menu
has been designed to merely serve as a guide in making healthy food choices. Experiment with
substitutions as desired.
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3
Oatmeal, cooked (1 cup)
Soy milk (1 cup)
Flaxseed, ground (2 tbsp)
Blueberries (1/2 cup)
Green tea (2 cups)
Bagel, whole grain (1 med)
Hummus (2 tbsp)
Tomato (6 slices)
Lemon pepper
Cantaloupe (1 cup)
Green tea (2 cups)
Tofu scramble
Tofu (4 oz)
Onions (1/4 cup)
Peppers (1/2 cup)
Mushrooms (1/2 cup)
Toast, whole grain (1 slice)
Jam (1 tbsp)
Turkey sandwich
Whole grain bread (2 slices)
Turkey (2 oz)
Lettuce (1/2 cup)
Tomato (4 slices)
Red peppers (1/4 cup)
Onions (2 tbsp)
Mustard (1 tsp)
Carrots (1/2 cup)
Snap peas (1/2 cup)
Vegetable Bean Soup (2 cups)
Corn tortilla (1 med)
Green salad (2 cups)
Oil/vinegar dressing (1 tbsp)
Salad
Spinach (3 cups)
Broccoli (1/2 cup)
Carrots (1/2 cup)
Tomato (1/2 cup)
Garbanzo beans (1 cup)
Barley, cooked (1/2 cup)
Avocado (4 slices)
Olive oil (1/2 tbsp)
Vinegar, balsamic (1 1/2 tbsp)
Roll, whole grain (1 med)
Orange (1 med)
Vegetable juice (12 oz)
Granola bar (1 each)
Fruit smoothie
Banana (1 med)
Berries (1 cup)
Flaxseed, ground (2 tbsp)
Yogurt, plain nonfat (1/2 cup)
Soy milk (1 cup)
Green tea (2 cups)
Popcorn, air-popped (3 cups)
Fish (3 oz)
Pasta, whole grain (1 1/2 cups)
Tomato sauce (1 cup)
Mushrooms (1/2 cup)
Olive oil (1/2 tbsp)
Broccoli (1 cup)
Mixed fruit (1 cup)
Chicken & vegetable stir-fry
Chicken breast (4 oz)
Mixed vegetables (2 cups)
Walnuts (2 tbsp) OR
Olive oil (1/2 tbsp)
Brown rice, cooked (1 cup)
Salmon (4 oz)
Quinoa, cooked (1 cup)
Asparagus (1 cup)
Fruit salad (1 cup)
37
Recipes
Baked Tofu
Ingredients:
• 1 pound tofu, firm, drained
• 3-4 tbsp marinade or sauce (personal favorite: Veri Veri Teriyaki by Soy Vay)
Chop drained firm tofu into 1” cubes. Place tofu cubes in glass dish for baking. Pour marinade or
sauce over tofu, stir well. Place tofu in oven at 350 F for 1 hour. Stir every 15-20 minutes.
Makes four 4-ounce servings.
Nutrition Information (per 4 oz serving):
Calories: 96 Dietary fiber: <1 gm
Protein: 8 gm Sodium: 318 mg
Fat: 5 gm Calcium: 155 mg
Saturated fat: <1 gm Iron: 1.4 mg
Recipe developed by Natalie Ledesma, MS, RD, CSO
Washington Insider Salad
Ingredients:
• 1 can (15 oz) kidney beans, drained
• 1 can (15 oz) black eyed peas, drained
• 1 1/2 cups cooked barley
• 6 tbsp cilantro, chopped finely
• 1 can (11 oz) corn
• 1 1/2 cups tomatoes, diced
• 3 tbsp balsamic vinegar
• 2 tbsp olive oil
Prepare vegetables. Mix all ingredients together, and serve on a bed of dark green leafy lettuce. Add
salt and pepper to taste.
Makes 8 servings (1 cup each).
Nutrition Information (per serving):
Calories: 215
Protein: 10 gm
Fat: 4 gm
Dietary fiber: 9 gm
Recipe developed by Sous Chef Chris at the Occidental Grill, Washington D.C.
Spinach Spread
Ingredients:
• 1 package (10.5 ounces) silken tofu
• 1 tbsp lemon juice
38
• 1/4 tsp garlic powder
• 3/4 tsp onion powder
• 1/2 tsp dried tarragon
• 1/4 tsp salt
• 1 box (10 ounce) frozen chopped spinach, thawed
• 1 cup coarsely shredded carrots
• 1/4 cup chopped green onion
Puree the tofu and lemon juice in blender until smooth. Whirl in the garlic and onion powders,
tarragon, and salt just to blend. Scrape into a mixing bowl. Squeeze the spinach as dry as possible.
Stir it into the tofu, along with the carrots and green onion. Mix well. Serve with crackers, pita
triangles, or vegetables.
Makes 8 servings (1/4 cup each).
Nutrition information (per serving):
Calories: 39 Sodium: 82 mg
Fat: 1 gm Calcium: 51 mg
Saturated fat: 0 gm Carbohydrate: 5 gm
Protein: 4 gm Dietary Fiber: 2 gm
Recipe from the U.S. Soyfoods Directory, 1998.
Tofuntastico – Tofu Sauce
Ingredients:
• 1 package (12.3 ounce) silken tofu
• 1/2 cup water
• 3/4 cup fresh basil, chopped
• 4 tbsp nutritional yeast
• 3 tbsp Bragg’s liquid aminos (or tamari or soy sauce)
•1 tbsp lemon juice
•1 tsp garlic, minced
•3/4 tsp black pepper
•Alternative: Use lime/cilantro rather than lemon/basil
Blend all ingredients together in a blender or food processor. Serve over pasta, vegetables, baked
potato, or other.
Makes 6 servings (1/2 cup each).
Nutrition Information (per serving):
Calories: 47 Carbohydrate: 4 gm
Protein: 7 gm Dietary fiber: 2 gm
Fat: <1 gm
Recipe developed by Natalie Ledesma, MS, RD, CSO
39
Alaska Salmon Bake with Walnut Crunch Coating
Ingredients:
• 1 pound salmon fillets, thawed if necessary
• 2 tbsp Dijon-style mustard
• 1-2 tbsp olive oil
• 4 tsp honey
• 1/4 cup bread crumbs
• 1/4 cup walnuts, finely chopped
• 2 tsp parsley, chopped
• Salt and pepper to taste
• Lemon wedges
Mix together mustard, olive oil, and honey in a small bowl; set aside. Mix together bread crumbs,
walnuts, and parsley in a small bowl; set aside. Season each salmon fillet with salt and pepper. Place
on a lightly greased baking sheet or broiling pan. Brush each fillet with mustard-honey mixture. Pat
top of each fillet with bread crumb mixture. Bake at 450 F for 10 minutes per inch of thickness or until
salmon just flakes when tested with a fork. Serve with lemon wedges.
Makes 4 servings (4 oz each).
Nutrition Information (per serving):
Calories: 228
Protein: 20 gm
Fat: 12 gm
Omega-3 fatty acids: 1.7 gm
Adapted from Alaska Seafood Marketing Institute.
Banana Bread
Ingredients:
• 3/4 cup ground flax seed
• 1 cup mashed banana
• 1/4 cup apple juice concentrate
• 1/2 cup brown sugar
• 1/4 cup applesauce
• Egg replacer for 2 eggs or 2 eggs (Ener-G Egg Replacer is made from potato starch & tapioca
flour; works wonderfully in baked goods.)
• 1 1/2 cup whole wheat pastry flour
• 1 tsp baking soda
• 1/2 tsp salt
• Additional optional ingredients may include 1/2 cup walnuts, raisins, or chocolate chips.
Mix all ingredients together. Pour in a coated 8”x4” pan. Bake at 350 F for about 40-45 minutes.
Makes 10 servings.
Nutrition Information (per serving):
40
Calories: 168 Carbohydrate: 29 gm
Protein: 5 gm Dietary fiber: 5 gm
Fat: 4 gm Omega-3 fatty acids: 1.4 gm
Recipe developed by Natalie Ledesma, MS, RD, CSO
Dilled Salmon Salad with Peas
Ingredients:
• 1 can (15 oz) salmon, drained
• 1 package (16 oz) frozen peas, thawed
• 1/4 cup lemon juice
• 1/4 cup fresh dill (or 1-2 tbsp dried dill)
• 2 tbsp Dijon-style mustard
• 2 shallots, sliced thinly (about 1/2 cup)
• 1 bunch radishes (about 11 medium), thinly sliced
• 6 cups red leaf lettuce
• Salt and pepper to taste
Drain salmon, place in a mixing bowl, and break into pieces. Prepare the lemon juice, shallots,
radishes, and lettuce. Add to the salmon the peas, lemon juice, dill, mustard, shallots, and radishes.
Mix together gently. Add salt and pepper to taste. Serve salmon mixture over lettuce.
Makes 6 servings (2 cups each).
Nutrition Information (per serving):
Calories: 160
Protein: 17 gm
Fat: 4 gm
Dietary fiber: 5 gm
Adapted from the Women’s Healthy Eating & Living Study (WHEL) at the University of California,
San Diego. Developed by Vicky Newman, MS, RD, WHEL nutrition coordinator.
Neat Loaf
Ingredients:
• 2 cups cooked brown rice
• 1 cup walnuts, finely chopped
• 1 onion, finely chopped
• 1/2 medium bell pepper, finely chopped
• 2 medium carrots, shredded or finely chopped
• 1 cup wheat germ
• 1 cup quick-cooking rolled oats
• 1/2 tsp each: thyme, marjoram, sage
41
• 2 tbsp soy sauce
• 2 tbsp stone ground or Dijon mustard
• Barbecue sauce or ketchup
Preheat the oven to 350 F. Combine all the ingredients except the barbecue sauce or ketchup. Mix for
2 minutes with a large spoon. This will help bind it together. Pat into an oil-sprayed 5×9” load pan and
top with barbecue sauce or ketchup. Bake for 60 minutes. Let stand 10 minutes before serving.
Makes 8-10 servings.
Nutrition Information (per serving):
Calories: 204 Sodium: 248 mg
Protein: 9 gm Cholesterol: 0 mg
Fat: 9 gm
Carbohydrate: 19 gm
Recipe from The Peaceful Palate written by Jennifer Raymond (1996).
Chinese Cabbage and Radish Salad
Ingredients:
• 4 cups Chinese cabbage, quartered and then thinly sliced
• 1/4 cup radishes
• 1/4 cup red onion, thinly sliced
• 2 tbsp white miso
• 2 tbsp brown rice vinegar
• 1 tsp maple syrup
• 1 tsp dill, dried
• 2 tbsp sunflower seeds, toasted
With a fork, mix the miso, vinegar, maple syrup, and dill. Mix the vegetables and press with a plate until
submerged in liquid for about 1 hour. Fluff the vegetables to serve and garnish with sunflower seeds.
Makes 4 servings.
Nutrition Information (per serving):
Calories: 64 Carbohydrate: 9 gm
Protein: 2 gm Cholesterol: 0 mg
Fat: 2 gm Sodium: 275 mg
Source anonymous.
Quinoa/Sweet Potato Patties
Ingredients:
• 1 1/2 cups sweet potato, peeled and chopped
• 1 cup quinoa
• 2 tbsp parsley, fresh
• 1/2 tsp sea salt
42
• 2 tsp extra-virgin olive oil
Steam or bake sweet potatoes until done. Drain and mash potatoes. Wash the quinoa well and drain.
Dry toast the quinoa in a skillet until slightly browned. Meanwhile, bring a pot of water to a boil. Add
the toasted quinoa to the boiling water and cook, with lid off, for ~15 minutes. Drain well. Mix the
mashed potatoes and quinoa. Add the parsley and salt. Form 8 patties and place in a lightly oiled pan
over medium-high heat. Cook for about 5 minutes on each side and serve warm.
Makes 8 servings.
Nutrition Information (per serving):
Calories: 125 Sodium: 165 mg
Protein: 4 gm Cholesterol: 0 mg
Fat: 2 gm
Carbohydrate: 22 gm
Recipe adapted from the Vegetarian Resource Group (1997).
Nutrition Resources
Books
How to Prevent & Treat Cancer with Natural Medicine – written by Michael Murray (2002)
The Color Code – written by James Joseph, Daniel Nadeau, & Anne Underwood (2002)
Ultra Metabolism – written by Mark Hyman (2006)
Cookbooks
Cancer Lifeline Cookbook – written by Kimberly Mathai & Ginny Smith (2004)
Fat-Free and Easy: Great Meals in Minutes – written by Jennifer Raymond (vegetarian cookbook) (1997)
Lickety-Split Meals – written by Zonya Foco (1998)
One Bite at a Time – written by Rebecca Katz, Marsha Tomassi, & Mat Edelson (2004)
The Peaceful Palate – written by Jennifer Raymond (vegetarian cookbook) (1996)
12 Best Foods Cookbook: Over 200 Recipes Featuring the 12 Healthiest Foods – written by Dana
Jacobi (2005)
Newsletters/Magazines
Cooking Light http://www.cookinglight.com Fax: (205) 445-6600
Environmental Nutrition http://www.environmentalnutrition.com (800) 829-5384
Nutrition Action Health Letter http://www.cspinet.org/nah/ Fax: (202) 265-4954
Websites
American Cancer Society http://www.cancer.org (415) 394-7100
American Institute for Cancer Research http://www.aicr.org (800) 843-8114
43
Caring4Cancer – Provides up-to-date & comprehensive information on the connection between
nutrition & cancer – http://www.caring4cancer.com
Center for Informed Food Choices – Offer cooking classes in the Bay Area that emphasize plantbased
foods. http://www.informedeating.org
Consumer Lab – Evaluates quality of over-the-counter supplements http://www.consumerlab.com
Diana Dyer, MS, RD – Breast cancer survivor & dietitian http://www.cancerrd.com
Ida & Joseph Friend Cancer Resource Center – UCSF Mt.Zion http://cancer.ucsf.edu/crc
(415) 885-3693
National Cancer Institute http://www.nci.nih.gov/ (800) 4-CANCER (800-422-6237)
Oncolink – Provides information regarding clinical trials, newsgroups, psychosocial support, & more.
http://oncolink.upenn.edu
San Francisco Vegetarian Society – Monthly restaurant outings & pot-luck dinners; call 415-273-5481.
The Vegetarian Resource Group – Provides vegetarian nutrition information & vegetarian recipes
http://www.vrg.org
WebMD http://my.webmd.com
44
Glossary
Angiogenesis – The formation of new blood vessels.
Antioxidant – A substance that inhibits oxidation or inhibits reactions promoted by oxygen or peroxides.
Apoptosis – Programmed cell death.
Carcinogenesis – Beginning of cancer development.
Case-Control Studies – An epidemiological study in which a group of, say, cancer patients (cases)
is compared to a similar but cancer-free population (controls) to help establish whether the past or
recent history of a specific exposure such as smoking, alcohol consumption and dietary intake, etc.
are causally related the risk of disease.
Catechin – One of the tannic acids; phytonutrient, specifically, one of the flavonoids found in green tea.
Creatine – An amino acid that is formed in the muscle tissue of vertebrates; supplies energy for
muscle contraction.
Cohort Studies – Follow-up study of a (usually large) group of people, initially disease-free.
Differences in disease incidence within the cohort are calculated in relation to different levels of
exposure to specific factors, such as smoking, alcohol consumption, diet and exercise, that were
measured at the start of the study and, sometimes, at later times during the study.
Eicosanoids – Biologically active compounds that regulate blood pressure, blood clotting, and other
body functions. They include prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes.
Endogenous – Originating from within, as within the body.
Estradiol – A naturally occurring powerful estrogen secreted by the mammalian ovary.
Estrone – A naturally occurring weak estrogen secreted by the mammalian ovary.
Glutathione – A polypeptide produced primarily in the liver; involved in DNA synthesis and repair,
protein and prostaglandin synthesis, amino acid transport, metabolism of toxins and carcinogens,
immune system function, prevention of oxidative cell damage, and enzyme activation.
Insulin – Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas in the body that regulates the metabolism of
carbohydrates and fats, especially the conversion of glucose to glycogen, which lowers the body’s
blood sugar level.
Lignans – Phytoestrogens that have a similar chemical structure to estradiol and tamoxifen; appear
to offer protection against breast cancer.
Meta-analysis – The process of using statistical methods to combine the results of different studies.
Mutation – Abnormal cell development.
Nitrosamines – Derivatives of nitrites that may be formed in the stomach when nitrites combine with
amines; carcinogenic in animals.
Phytonutrients – Plant compounds that appear to have health-protecting properties.
Polyphenols – Phytonutrients that act as an antioxidant; compounds that protects the cells and body
chemicals against damage caused by free radicals, reactive atoms that contribute to tissue damage
in the body.
Retinoids – Chemically related compounds with biological activity similar to that of retinol; related to
vitamin A.
Sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) – A protein in the blood that acts as a carrier for androgens
and estradiol; inhibits the estradiol-induced proliferation of breast cancer cells.
45
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